bit

A bit (contraction of binary digit) is the basic unit of information in computingand telecommunications; it is the amount of information stored by a digital device or other physical system that exists in one of two possible distinctstates. These may be the two stable states of a flip-flop, two positions of anelectrical switch, two distinct voltage or current levels allowed by a circuit, two distinct levels of light intensity, two directions of magnetization or polarization, etc.

In computing, a bit can also be defined as a variable or computed quantity that can have only two possible values. These two values are often interpreted as binary digits and are usually denoted by the Arabic numerical digits 0 and 1. Indeed, the term "bit" is a contraction of binary digit. The two values can also be interpreted as logical values (true/false, yes/no), algebraic signs(+/−), activation states (on/off), or any other two-valued attribute. In several popular programming languages, numeric 0 is equivalent (or convertible) to logical false, and 1 to true. The correspondence between these values and the physical states of the underlying storage or device is a matter of convention, and different assignments may be used even within the same device or program.

In information theory, one bit is typically defined as the uncertainty of a binary random variable that is 0 or 1 with equal probability,^[1] or the information that is gained when the value of such a variable becomes known.^[2]

In quantum computing, a quantum bit or qubit is a quantum system that can exist in superpositionof two bit values, "true" and "false".

The symbol for bit, as a unit of information, is either simply "bit" (recommended by the ISO/IEC standard 80000-13 (2008)) or lowercase "b" (recommended by the IEEE 1541 Standard (2002))

The IRS Needs To Better Define Computer Security Responsibilities

According to the Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA) the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) needs to clarify the roles and responsibilities of those employees responsible for protecting the security of taxpayer data and other sensitive information, according to a new report publicly released today.

While the IRS has educated its employees about information technology (IT) issues, TIGTA found that it did not document all IT security roles and responsibilities in the Internal Revenue Manual (IRM); develop and document day-to-day IT security procedures and guidelines; properly conduct compliance assessments to test IT procedures; or establish effective metrics for measuring compliance with procedures.

As a result, TIGTA concluded, the IRS cannot ensure all IRS and contract employees will carry out their responsibilities to protect the confidentiality, integrity and availability of taxpayer data.

TIGTA recommended that the IRS update the IRM to include all IT security roles, ensure that security roles and responsibilities are periodically reviewed and updated, and develop procedures to validate compliance with IT procedures. In addition, TIGTA recommended that the IRS reopen the roles and responsibilities component of the computer security material weakness.

The IRS agreed with three of TIGTA’s recommendations which is great bu t declined to reopen the roles and responsibility component of the computer security material weakness which is crap.

Differentiate between ethics and law.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW

DEFINITION OF ETHICS
In general, ethics is a moral philosophy where a person makes a specific moral choice and sticks to it. On the other hand, ethics in computing means moral guidelines to refer to when using the computer and computer networks. This includes the Internet.


DEFINITION OF LAW
Law is a legal system comprising of rules and principles that govern the affairs of a community and controlled by a political authority.

Law differs from one country to another. In the era of technology, computer law is needed to clarify goods or actions that fall under the computer law. Computer law refers to all areas in law that requires an understanding of computer technology such as hardware, software and Internet.

Examples of laws of computing in Malaysia include the Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Act, the Computer Crime Act 1997 and the Telemedicine Act 1997.

1.2.1.3 State the need for intellectual property laws

WHY DO WE NEED ETHICS AND LAW IN COMPUTING?

• Respecting Ownership
• Respecting Privacy
• Respecting Property

RESPECTING OWNERSHIP
We must respect ownership by not stealing other people’s work either by duplicating or distributing it. Duplicating and distributing copies of audio
tapes, video tapes and computer programs without permission and authorisation from the individual or company that created the program
are immoral and illegal.

RESPECTING PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY
We should respect other people's privacy and confidentiality by refraining ourselves from reading their mails or files without their permission. If we do so, it is considered as violating an individual’s rights to privacy and confidentiality.

RESPECTING PROPERTY
Property here means ownership. Since an individual data and information are considered as property, therefore, an act of tampering and changing electronic information is considered as vandalism and disrespect for other people’s property.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW
Both ethics and law are complimentary to each other and are made:

• to guide user from misusing computers
• to create a healthy computer society, so that computers are used to
contribute to a better life
• to prevent any crime

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAWS

ETHICS

GUIDELINE As a guideline to computer users.
MORAL STANDARDS Ethical behaviour is judged by moral standards.
FREE TO FOLLOW Computer users are free to follow or ignore the code of ethics.
NO PUNISHMENTS No punishment for anyone who violates ethics.
UNIVERSALS Universal, can be applied anywhere, all over the world.
PRODUCE ETHICAL
COMPUTER USERS To produce ethical computer users.
IMMORAL Not honouring computer ethics means ignoring the moral elements
(immoral).

LAW

CONTROL As a rule to control computer users.
JUDICIAL STANDARDS Law is judged by judicial standards.
MUST FOLLOW Computer users must follow the regulations and law.
PENALTIES, IMPRISONMENTS
AND OTHER PUNISHMENTS Penalties, imprisonments and other punishments for those
who break the law.
DEPENDS ON COUNTRY Depends on country and state where the crime is
committed.
PREVENT MISUSING OF
COMPUTERS To prevent misuse of computers.
CRIME Not honouring the law means committing a crime.

UNETHICAL VS. LAW BREAKING CONDUCTS

Unethical:

• using the office computer to do personal things
• reading your friend’s e-mail without his or her permission
• plagiarising and using materials from the Internet for your class assignment without giving credit to the original author.

Law breaking:

• sending a computer virus via e-mail
• hacking into your school’s database to change your examination results.
• selling pirated software in a night market


INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

DEFINITION OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Intellectual Property refers to works created by inventors, authors and artists. These works are unique and have value in the market place. In our daily lives, we are surrounded by things that are protected by IP. Your school bags, your shoes and even your socks are protected by Intellectual Property rights. Nike, Bata or Adidas, for example, are all protected by a group of legal rights.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW
Intellectual Property laws cover ideas, inventions, literary creations, unique names, business models, industrial processes, computer program codes and more.

INVENTIONS PROTECTED BY INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAWS
As businesses continue to expand globally, business owners must realise the importance of getting professional advice on how to establish and safeguard their intellectual property rights. These include :

• Trademarks
• Service marks
• Trade/company names
• Domain names
• Geographical indications
• Copyrights
• Patents

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION
There are four types of Intellectual Property protection. They are patents for invention, trademarks for brand identity, designs for product appearance and copyright for material.

• Patents for inventions
• Trademarks for brand identity
• Design for product appearance
• Copyright for material

Patents for inventions
Utility, design or plant patents that protect inventions and improvements to
existing inventions

Trademarks for brand identity
Words, names, symbols, devices and images that represent products, goods or services.

Design for product appearance
Literary and artistic material, music, films, sound recordings and roadcasts,
including software and multimedia.

Copyright for material
The features of, in particular,the lines, contours, colours,shape, texture or material of the product itself or its ornamentation.

THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY

FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED

In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to be send. Now with the Internet, news or messages are sent via e-mail to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the capability of bandwidth, broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information can travel fast and at an instant. It saves time and is inexpensive.

LOWER COMMUNICATION COST

Using the Internet is cost-effective than the other modes of communication such as telephone, mailing or courier service. It allows people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low cost. With the Internet we do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet. Furthermore, the cost of connection to the Internet is relatively cheap.

RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION

Computers are reliable. With the internet, information could be accessed and retrieved from anywhere and at anytime. This makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to the computer is contributed by humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be faulty as well. This is related to the term GIGO.

GIGO is a short form for Garbage In Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output produced according to the input. Normally bad input produces bad output.

EFFECTIVE SHARING OF INFORMATION

With the advancement of ICT, information can be shared by people all around the world. People can share and exchange opinions, news and information through discussion groups, mailing list and forums on the Internet. This enable knowledge sharing which will contribute to the development of knowledge based society.

PAPERLESS ENVIRONMENT

ICT technology has created the term paperless environment. This term means information can be stored and retrieved through the digital medium instead of paper. Online communication via emails, online chat and instant messaging also helps in creating the paperless environment.

BORDERLESS COMMUNICATION

Internet offers fast information retrieval, interactivity, accessibility and versatility. It has become a borderless sources for services and information. Through the Internet, information and communication can be borderless.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

There are some negative effects of ICT. It has created social problems in the society. Nowadays, people tend to choose online communication rather than having real time conversations. People tend to become more individualistic and introvert.

Another negative effect of ICT is :

• fraud

• identity theft

• Pornography

• Hacking

This will result a moral decedent and generate threads to the society.

HEALTH PROBLEMS

A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours frequently. Computer users are also exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to solve the health problems, an ergonomic environment can be introduced. For example, an ergonomic chair can reduces back strain and a screen filter is used to minimize eye strain.

differences between computerized and non- computerized systems

LESSON 4
COMPUTERISED AND NON-COMPUTERISED SYSTEMS

COMPUTER SYSTEM

A system is an arrangement of elements that when it is put together it becomes an organised and established procedure. A system typically consists of components connected together in order to facilitate the flow of information, matter or energy.

A computer system consists of a set of hardware and software which processes data in a meaningful way.

EDUCATION
• education is the science of teaching and learning of specific skills
• it also imparts knowledge, good judgement and wisdom

BANKING SYSTEM

BANKING BEFORE ICT
• banking was done manually by taking deposits directly
• transactions can only be made during working hours
• takes time to approve any loan applications

BANKING WITH ICT
• all transactions are done by computers
• transaction can be done at anytime and place
• online services, phone banking system, credit cards are available

INDUSTRY

INDUSTRY BEFORE ICT
Production was slow because everything was done manually and totally depended on human labour.

INDUSTRY WITH ICT
Computers and telecommunications industry became very opular and profitable since production can be increased through an all day operation.

COMMERCE

Commerce is an activity of exchanging, buying and selling of commodities on a large scale involving transportation from place to place.

COMMERCE BEFORE ICT
• Trading was made using the barter system and it was then later developed
into currency.
• Advertisement was in the form of word of mouth, billboards and printed
flyers.
• Trading globally was extremely slow, late and expensive. Traders had to find
ways to market local products in the global market.

COMMERCE WITH ICT
E-commerce plays an important role in the economic scene. It includes distribution, buying, selling and servicing products that are done electronically.

USAGE OF ICT IN DAILY LIFE - E-COMMERCE

E-commerce helps in boosting the economy. It makes buying and selling activities easier, more efficient and faster. For this application, computers, Internet and shared software are needed.

In the e-commerce sector ,customers r, suppliers and employees benefits from the usage of ICT.

1. Customers use computers to be connected online with suppliers to purchase products. This method can save time and cost as they do not have to go to any outlets.

2. Suppliers use computers to keep track of their transactions. All products are bar coded and can be read by the computer scanner to help in determining prices and managing inventory.

3. Employees use computers and telephones to communicate with their customers for any enquiries. The system helps employees to get the latest updates on inventory to be informed to the customers.

USAGE OF ICT IN DAILY - INDUSTRY

Computers are used to facilitate production planning and control systems, to support chain management and to help in product design in the industrial sector In the industrial sector ,workers, researchers and administrator benefits from the usage of ICT.

1. Workers use machines that are connected to computers to operate. In some productions, robots are used to take over jobs that are dangerous to the workers.

2. Researchers use computers to analyze and collect research data for future reference.

3. Administrators use computers to oversee the entire operations in the plant or factory to detect specific errors or defects that occurred in the process.